Учащиеся часто не знают, что преподаватели имеют в виду под критическим мышлением / Faking It. Students often don’t know what educators mean by «critical thinking.»

Учащиеся часто не знают, что преподаватели имеют в виду под критическим мышлением / Faking It. Students often don’t know what educators mean by «critical thinking.»

by Евгений Волков -
Number of replies: 0

https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/thoughts-thinking/201707/faking-it

One of my favorite observations from teaching undergraduate critical thinking (as I noted in my last post) is that even though students claim to, they often don’t know what educators mean by "critical thinking." Even so, there is a tendency for students to nod their heads in agreement with whatever educators say, because hey, no one wants to look foolish! We see this behavior quite often in the classroom.

“Does anyone have any questions?”

Nothing. Not a single hand. Maybe, there genuinely are no questions. However, in larger classrooms, with over 100 people, this is probably not the case—there’s bound to be at least one question. In my opinion, if a student has a question, it makes them look smarter to ask it. It is in their interest to do so, particularly if they don’t understand what is being discussed. Still, questions often go unasked, perhaps, because of shyness or uncertainty. When hands do go up, there are generally very few of them. No one wants to stand out and look like they don’t get it, especially if no one else is raising their hand. Thus, some might just be sitting there, still wondering, “What do you mean by critical thinking?”  

Syda Productions/Shutterstock
Source: Syda Productions/Shutterstock

Critical thinking (CT) is a metacognitive process: It consists of a number of sub-skills and dispositions, that, when applied through purposeful, self-regulatory, reflective judgment, increase the chances of producing a logical solution to a problem or a valid conclusion to an argument (Dwyer, 2017; Dwyer, Hogan & Stewart, 2014). As noted in my last post, CT is important because it allows students to gain a better understanding of complex information; it allows them to achieve higher grades and become more employable, informed and active citizens; it facilitates good decision-making and problem-solving in social and interpersonal contexts; and it decreases the effects of cognitive biases and heuristic thinking. Though past research suggests that explicit CT instruction can foster CT (e.g. Reed and Kromrey 2001; Rimiene 2002; Solon 2007), how best to teach it remains a key concern in educational research (Dwyer, et al., 2014). This is perhaps a result of issues regarding CT conceptualization.

Though the definition above is a modern and, arguably, straightforward description of what is meant by CT, it is only one of many. The varying definitions and conceptualizations can make it difficult for researchers and teachers to understand or agree on the key components of CT. In turn, this may impede their ability to construct an integrated theoretical account of how best to train and assess it (Dwyer, Hogan & Stewart, 2014).

The University of Western Australia (2007), found that while 92 percent of academic staff believed it was important to provide students with opportunities to critically evaluate their own beliefs and perspectives with a view towards changing them, 54 percent of students felt that they were not actually provided such opportunities by their educators. Perhaps this can be somewhat explained by research conducted by Lloyd and Bahr (2010), who examined the qualitative descriptions of CT provided by academics. According to one university lecturer interviewed, "we expect students to do it [think critically], but now you are questioning me on my understanding of it, I wonder if I actually understand it myself."

Lloyd and Bahr’s research revealed that only 37 percent of academics instructing or assessing CT in university courses at least acknowledge the dispositional and self-regulatory aspects of CT. Furthermore, only 47 percent described CT in terms of involving processes or skills! If educators are in the dark about CT, how can we expect students to know its meaning?

Lloyd and Bahr’s research indicates that students’ descriptions of CT were largely outcome focused, whereas academics’ descriptions of CT were more process focused. For CT instruction to be effective: (1) instructors need to acknowledge the discrepancies among "understandings" (i.e. discrepancies between educators’ and students’ understanding, as well as understandings among educators themselves); and (2) students’ pre-existing understandings (sometimes inaccurate) must be addressed (Bransford, et al. 1999). These considerations, like CT, are metacognitive in their own right; for example, in this context, students are required to think about their thinking (Flavell, 1976). If the diverse perspectives that students hold prior to training are not engaged, they may fail to grasp newly taught concepts; and may fail to understand how they can coordinate their knowledge with the knowledge of others and apply it to real world problems — CT in practice!

Educators need to reach agreement on what is meant by CT. However, what seems like the simplest solution, unfortunately, is not. For example, in 1988, a committee of 46 experts in the field of CT gathered in an effort to agree upon a definition of CT and the skills necessary to think critically. The findings of this meeting, the Delphi Report, revealed overwhelming agreement (i.e. 95 percent consensus) that analysis, evaluation and inference were the core skills necessary for CT (Facione, 1990). Though advancements in understanding CT have been made, 30 years later, these skills remain "core." Nevertheless, debate lingers on. Why? Why is it that educators, after 30 years, still have trouble conceptualizing and communicating CT for instruction?

Perhaps it isn’t necessarily an issue of agreement or even trouble. Both for good and bad, critical thinking has become a "buzz" phrase over the past couple of decades. We all know it’s important, useful and we want our students to do it; but, maybe it’s the case that, consistent with the qualitative excerpt above, many educators don’t really know what researchers mean by "critical thinking" and/or simply haven’t researched it themselves (see also: Eigenauer, 2017). Despite not understanding it, there is a tendency for educators to, like my students, nod their heads in agreement with whatever researchers say. In a way, educators will sometimes fake it too. 

If we want everyone to stop faking it and successfully apply CT, we need to make sure we, as educators, understand it. We need to throw away the buzz words and read the research on CT. For students to think critically, we must not fake it. 

References

Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (1999). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Dwyer, C.P. (2017). Critical thinking: Conceptual perspectives and practical guidelines. Cambridge, UK:  Cambridge University Press.

Dwyer, C.P., Harney, O. Hogan, M.J. & O’Reilly, J. (2014). Using interactive management to define and cultivate critical thinking competencies. Educational Technology Research & Development, 62, 687–709.

Dwyer, C.P., Hogan, M.J., & Stewart, I. (2012). An evaluation of argument mapping as a method of enhancing critical thinking performance in e-learning environments. Metacognition and Learning, 7, 219-244.

Dwyer, C.P., Hogan, M.J. & Stewart, I. (2014). An integrated critical thinking framework for the 21st century. Thinking Skills & Creativity, 12, 43-52. 

Eigenauer, J.D. (2017). Don’t reinvent the critical thinking wheel: What scholarly literature tells us about critical thinking instruction. Innovation Abstracts, 39, 2.

Facione, P. A. (1990). The Delphi report: Committee on pre-college philosophy.Millbrae, CA: California Academic Press.

Flavell, J. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem solving. In L. Resnick (Ed.), The nature of intelligence (pp. 231–236). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Lloyd, M., & Bahr, N. (2010). Thinking critically about critical thinking in higher education. International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 4(2), 1–5.

Reed, J. H., & Kromrey, J. D. (2001). Teaching critical thinking in a community college history course: Empirical evidence from infusing Paul’s model. College Student Journal, 35(2), 201–215.

Rimiene, V. (2002). Assessing and developing students’ critical thinking. Psychology Learning and Teaching, 2(1), 17–22.

Solon, T. (2007). Generic critical thinking infusion and course content learning in introductory psychology. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 34(2), 95–109.

University of Western Australia (2007). ACE and NSSE. Retrieved August 28, 2010, from http://www.catl.uwa.edu.au/CATLyst/archive/2007/1/ace_and_nsse

Christopher Dwyer Ph.D.

Christopher Dwyer, Ph.D., is a researcher and lecturer at the National University of Ireland, Galway. 

CT is challenging because it is a concept that doesn't translate easily in day to day life.

My notion is that there are layers upon layers of CT and also people can apply CT in some areas of their life on not in others.

So as least to me it doesn't mean anything generically and needs to be specified when applied to individuals. Also people with 360 degree, deep level CT are called wise men and women and are exceedingly rare.

They aren't rare, they are just wise enough to know not to say anything since the rest of the species is a bunch of know-it-alls.

In my case i have to get attention, cuz like otherwise there is a conflict and i am going to wipe the dumbass species from existence. which considering the human race has gone above and beyond to prove themselves as a bunch of detestable, treasonous, poisonous, good for nothing wretched excuses of living beings..i look forward to the war....its just takes forever to get to cuz like as the badasses of the universe your also a bunch of lying cowards.

In the U.S. at least, a student offering CT that may go against the Stalinist PC/SJW propaganda model on university campuses is academic suicide. Why put a grade at risk for something that you believe in? Intellectual integrity is passe.

If I had a kid in college right now, my advice to her would be to mirror back the stunted tendentious beliefs of the prof, collect the A and move on. And also instruct her to remember the values she was taught at home.

College is a transitory experience these days offering little more than getting a ticket punched for real life. Students should merely shake the dust off their sandals and move on...

Why not drop the vague title Critical Thinking and call the subject Reasoning? Then you might explain to students that the goal of the course is to enhance, through training, their natural talent for reasoning to improve their chances of making the right decisions and finding solutions to the problems they will face in their lives.

Many thanks for the comments thus far! I’d like to take the opportunity to answer them.

“Why not drop the vague title Critical Thinking and call the subject Reasoning? Then you might explain to students that the goal of the course is to enhance, through training, their natural talent for reasoning to improve their chances of making the right decisions and finding solutions to the problems they will face in their lives.”

I think this comment is a great example of the issues surrounding CT conceptualisation. In response, part of me would ask: how do you operationally define/conceptualise reasoning? CT is much more than simply reasoning (in the traditional sense). CT includes (1) specific skills (analysis, evaluation and inference), which does of course include some elements of reasoning, but it also includes (2) disposition(s) towards thinking and (3) reflective judgment. Together, these components of CT can be applied in a variety of contexts, including: verbal reasoning; argumentation; hypothesis testing; judging likelihoods and uncertainty; and problem-solving. Again, though reasoning is a big part of CT, it would be inaccurate to suggest that it is the only aspect. For further details on how I’m conceptualisaing CT, please see the relatively short journal article: “An integrated critical thinking framework for the 21st century” in Thinking Skills & Creativity (Dwyer, Hogan & Stewart, 2014).

“In the U.S. at least, a student offering CT that may go against the Stalinist PC/SJW propaganda model on university campuses is academic suicide. Why put a grade at risk for something that you believe in? Intellectual integrity is passé. If I had a kid in college right now, my advice to her would be to mirror back the stunted tendentious beliefs of the prof, collect the A and move on. And also instruct her to remember the values she was taught at home. College is a transitory experience these days offering little more than getting a ticket punched for real life. Students should merely shake the dust off their sandals and move on...”

I agree that sometimes, students should be conscientious about what they say for purposes of self-preservation. We all have to be practical. As in this example, depending on the consequences, sometimes it may be necessary to ‘mute’ intellectual integrity. If I had a child in college, I too would advise the same. However, critical thinking isn’t only for dealing with controversial topics - we use it on a daily basis (albeit, in varying degrees of performance). We apply it when we think about an issue we care about (regardless of whether the issue is controversial or not). Moreover, I’d argue that in a vast majority of situations, lecturers and professors would only be too happy to see a student consider multiple sources and perspectives on a topic. Notably, I will actually be discussing a similar line of thought brought up in this particualr comment in a future post.

“CT is challenging because it is a concept that doesn't translate easily in day to day life. My notion is that there are layers upon layers of CT and also people can apply CT in some areas of their life on not in others. So as least to me it doesn't mean anything generically and needs to be specified when applied to individuals. Also people with 360 degree, deep level CT are called wise men and women and are exceedingly rare.”

Again, this is another great example of the issues surrounding CT conceptualisation. I would argue that CT does translate quite easily into day-to-day life, perhaps now more than ever, given the bombardment of information we receive on a daily basis from newspapers, television, social media and other websites. We need it now more than ever and it’s important that people try to apply it, not based on what they think it means, but rather, having looked first at both research on CT and accepted conceptualisations of CT. Furthermore, CT is domain-general, meaning it can be applied in all areas of their lives. It’s up to them when to apply it. For reasons of avoiding cognitive load and decision fatigue, I generally advise to apply only when we care about an issue (whilst dispelling emotion). Moreover, I wouldn’t advocate equivocating CT with wisdom until we know what is meant by ‘wisdom’.

On reading my suggestion that the vague title Critical Thinking should be changed to Reasoning, The author asked "how do you operationally define/conceptualise reasoning? "

REASONING is the process of forming conclusions, judgments, or inferences from facts or premises. Reasoning about cause-and-effect is the most useful of all skills and it's one which can be developed with training.

He said, "CT is much more than simply reasoning..."

1. Reasoning is the fundamental process in what the author called the "core components of CT."

2. A course entitled Reasoning doesn't have to be absolutely restricted to reasoning. The vague title Critical Thinking only allows for more content precisely because it's vague.

3. When the people who teach it can't agree on a definition for Critical Thinking, isn't that a reason to suspect that, taken as a group, they don't understand what they're trying to teach?

Thanks for that. Yes, I completely take on board your comment here.

I like your definition of reasoning. But, if you were to ask 100 educators to conceptualise reasoning, I would dare say you would see quite a bit of diversity in the responses as well. My point is that the same applies to CT (granted, you might see even greater diversity).

Reasoning is an essential part of the three core CT skills: analysis, evaluation and inference. However, disposition towards CT and reflective judgment - equally important to CT, doesn't necessarily include reasoning. CT and reasoning are distinct (though there is certainly overlap); hence roughly 80 years of research on CT as its own topic.

Many people do know how to teach CT. This is why research shows, more often than not, the success of CT instruction in intervention studies. However, this does not mean everybody knows what it is or how to teach it. Thus, the point is that research and literature on CT conceptualisation should be engaged, especially by educators novice in CT instruction, before teaching it to a room full of students.

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